Discover the evolution of Korean writing from mixed Hanja-Hangul scripts to Hangul-only usage, and explore the differences between Korean and Japanese kanji reading systems, including on’yomi and kun’yomi, in shaping language practices.
Introduction: The Role of Sino-Korean and Sino-Japanese Readings
When learning Korean and Japanese, students often notice that many words are derived from Chinese characters (Hanja in Korean, Kanji in Japanese). Both languages historically developed two ways to read these characters: 음독 (on reading / Chinese-based pronunciation) and 훈독 (kun reading / native reading).
In Japan, both readings continue to exist in modern Japanese: Kanji often has on’yomi (音読み, Sino-Japanese) for Sino-Japanese vocabulary and kun’yomi (訓読み, native Japanese) for native Japanese words. In contrast, Korean now almost exclusively uses 음독, while 훈독 has largely disappeared from everyday use.
Why did this divergence occur? Understanding it requires looking at the history of literacy, the adoption of Hangul, and the differences in how Korean and Japanese handle phonetics and homophones. This post will explore how on/kun readings were used in each language, why Korean gradually abandoned the kun reading system, and what historical, phonological, and social factors contributed to these changes.
Historical Development of Sino-Korean Readings
In early Korean history, Hanja (Chinese characters) were read in two ways, similar to Japanese: 음독 (Sino-Korean reading) and 훈독 (native Korean reading of the character). In practice, both methods were used frequently in scholarly writing, official documents, and literature. This meant that a single character could be read using its Sino-Korean pronunciation, or it could be interpreted with a Korean word that carried the same meaning.
For example, the character 山 could be read as 산 (san, Sino-Korean) or interpreted with a native Korean word in certain contexts. Early Korean texts demonstrate that both readings coexisted without strict separation, giving writers flexibility in expressing meaning.
The situation began to change with the invention of Hangul in the 15th century. While Hangul initially spread primarily among the literate elite, it gradually offered a simpler way to represent Korean words phonetically. As Hangul literacy expanded, especially among scholars and commoners over the following centuries, the need for native Korean readings of Hanja—훈독—diminished. Instead, the Sino-Korean pronunciation, 음독, became the default in formal and educational contexts.
By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most Korean texts relied almost exclusively on 음독 for Hanja. Even before widespread Hangul literacy, the simplification of reading practices meant that 훈독 was gradually falling out of use, and after Hangul became the main writing system, 훈독 largely disappeared from daily language.
Why Hangul Replaced 훈독 in Korea, but Japanese Retained Kun’yomi
Even though both Korean and Japanese historically used both Sino readings (음독/オン読み) and native readings (훈독/訓読み), the two languages followed very different paths.
In Korea, Hangul offered a simple and systematic way to write Korean phonetically. Once literacy with Hangul increased, the need to rely on native readings of Hanja diminished. In daily communication, people could now write Korean words directly in Hangul, making 훈독 less necessary.
By contrast, Japanese continued to use Kanji with both 音読み (on’yomi, Sino-Japanese reading) and 訓読み (kun’yomi, native Japanese reading). Why? Several factors contributed:
1. Limited syllable inventory in Japanese – Japanese has fewer possible syllable combinations than Korean. Without Kanji, many words would sound identical, leading to confusion. Using Kanji with kun’yomi or on’yomi resolves ambiguity.
2. Mixed writing system – Japanese uses Kanji alongside Hiragana and Katakana. Even though phonetic scripts exist, Kanji remains essential for clarity in writing.
3. Failed anti-Kanji movements – Throughout history, there were movements in Japan advocating for reduced Kanji use, but they never fully succeeded. The practical need to distinguish homophones outweighed simplification efforts.
In short, while Hangul literacy allowed Koreans to rely almost exclusively on phonetic writing, Japanese speakers could not eliminate Kanji without losing clarity. Consequently, Korea gradually moved toward a Hangul-only system, while Japanese maintained a mixed writing system with both on’yomi and kun’yomi intact.
From Mixed Script to Hangul-Only: How Korean Lost Its Kun’yomi Tradition
By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Korean writing system had entered a transitional phase. While Hangul had existed since the 15th century, it was initially a complementary system used alongside Hanja, primarily by the general populace and lower literate classes. Classical Chinese remained the primary medium for official documents, scholarly works, and literature, meaning that Chinese characters continued to dominate formal literacy.
During the late Joseon period and into the early 20th century, a mixed writing system—Hangul-Hanja hybrid—became widespread in everyday writing. Texts would combine Hangul for grammatical markers and native Korean words, while Hanja was used for Sino-Korean vocabulary, names, and abstract concepts. This system allowed educated Koreans to distinguish homophones and access the rich semantic depth of Chinese characters, including their potential for multiple readings. Indeed, kun’yomi-like interpretations persisted for a few words, particularly in literary and historical contexts.
However, the 20th century brought a profound shift. As modern education systems expanded, literacy campaigns increasingly promoted Hangul as the primary vehicle of written Korean. The push for Hangul literacy was motivated by several factors:
1. Accessibility: Hangul was simpler to learn than Hanja and allowed mass literacy to grow rapidly.
2. National Identity: Emphasizing Hangul reinforced a distinct Korean identity amid periods of foreign influence.
3. Simplification: The hybrid system required significant effort to master, particularly for the average reader, making full Hanja competence impractical.
By the mid-20th century, mixed Hangul-Hanja texts were still common, particularly in newspapers, literature, and official documents. But during the 1960s–1970s, government policies under Park Chung-hee explicitly promoted Hangul-only writing, reducing the functional role of Hanja in daily life. While some Hanja persisted in specialized contexts—legal, academic, or historical texts—the everyday use of Hanja, especially for phonetic or kun’yomi-like purposes, essentially vanished.
The consequence was clear: the kun’yomi tradition in Korean, once alive in mixed-script texts, disappeared entirely from modern literacy practice. Modern Korean readers now rely almost exclusively on Hangul for both phonetic representation and semantic clarity, with Hanja serving as an optional supplementary tool rather than a core element of written communication.
Key Takeaway: The decline of kun’yomi in Korean was not merely a linguistic change—it reflected broader social, educational, and political transformations. Hangul’s rise to dominance transformed literacy, simplified daily reading and writing, and ultimately eliminated the need for multiple character readings that had existed for centuries.
The Modern Outcome: Hangul Dominance and the Decline of Korean Kun’yomi
In contemporary Korean, writing is almost entirely in Hangul. The historical practice of reading Chinese characters with native Korean pronunciations—similar to the Japanese kun’yomi—has largely disappeared from everyday literacy. Several historical and linguistic factors contributed to this development:
1. Hangul as the Primary Script:
The spread of modern education in the 20th century established Hangul as the primary writing system. This increased literacy across different social groups and reduced reliance on Hanja.
2. Official Policies on Script Usage:
During the mid-20th century, the South Korean government implemented policies promoting Hangul-only writing, gradually reducing the use of Hanja in everyday texts. Today, Hanja is mostly found in specialized contexts, such as academic, legal, or historical documents.
3. Phonological and Practical Considerations:
Hangul’s phonemic system allows for unambiguous representation of Korean words, which diminished the functional necessity for multiple readings of Chinese characters. As a result, kun’yomi-like readings became largely redundant.
4. Comparison with Japanese:
In Japan, Kanji continues to be an integral part of the writing system. The relatively limited phonetic inventory of Japanese increases the potential for homophones, making Kanji necessary to convey precise meaning. Korean, with a more extensive phonetic system and a fully phonemic script, could sustain accurate written communication without extensive reliance on Chinese character readings.
Key Insight:
The decline of kun’yomi in Korean reflects interactions between linguistic structure, educational reforms, and historical language planning. Both Korean and Japanese historically incorporated Chinese characters, but the differences in phonology and script policy led to divergent outcomes in contemporary writing practices.
Understanding Character Readings: Korean vs. Japanese
Examining specific examples helps clarify the difference in how Chinese characters (Hanja/Kanji) are read in Korean and Japanese.
Korean (Hanja to Hangul):
During the early 20th century, the character 学 (“study/learning”) could sometimes be read in a native Korean style, similar to Japan’s kun’yomi. For instance:
- 學校 → 학교 (hak-gyo)
Although Hanja remained in formal texts, Hangul increasingly became the primary writing system. Over time, the traditional character reading became mostly historical; today, words like 학교 are almost always written in Hangul, and Hanja readings are rarely used outside academic contexts.
Japanese (Kanji + Kun’yomi/On’yomi):
In contrast, the same character in Japanese continues to have two main readings:
- On’yomi (Chinese-style reading): がく (gaku)
- Kun’yomi (native Japanese reading): まなぶ (manabu)
Examples: - 学校 → がっこう (gakkō, using on’yomi)
- 学ぶ → まなぶ (manabu, using kun’yomi)
Both reading types remain widely used today. The combination of Kanji with these readings helps resolve ambiguities caused by the limited syllable inventory in Japanese.
Key Takeaways:
In modern Korean, Hanja functions largely as a supplementary system rather than a primary script.
In Japanese, Kanji readings are integral to writing and pronunciation.
Differences in phonology, historical language policy, and the evolution of writing systems explain why Korean gradually abandoned native-style readings (훈독), while Japanese continues to maintain them.
Conclusion: Cultural and Linguistic Implications of Sino-Korean Reading Practices
The development of Korean writing—from the combined use of Hanja and Hangul to a predominantly Hangul-based system—reflects a distinctive trajectory in East Asian literacy. Moving to Hangul-only scripts offered clear advantages, such as simplifying written language for daily use and improving accessibility. At the same time, it reduced opportunities for deeper engagement with Sino-Korean vocabulary, particularly the nuanced understanding that Japanese learners acquire through the interplay of on’yomi and kun’yomi readings.
In Japan, the continued coexistence of kanji with phonetic scripts, along with the dual reading system, enables learners to detect subtle distinctions in meaning and develop a richer understanding of Chinese-derived vocabulary. In contrast, Korea’s Hangul-centered approach limited similar exposure, meaning that modern language education places less emphasis on this aspect of vocabulary depth and historical linguistic connections.